Institutional discrimination refers to

• A. Unjust practices by large organizations codified into procedures
• B. Personal bias in a close circle
• C. Economic inequality due to market forces
• D. Laws that protect equal rights

Answer: (A)

Institutional discrimination occurs when the policies and procedures of large organizations systematically disadvantage certain groups, producing unequal outcomes even if individuals within the organization don’t intend harm. It’s discrimination woven into the rules, practices, and structures of institutions—schools, workplaces, government agencies—so that certain groups are continually treated as less favored by the way things are organized.

This is why the best choice describes unjust practices by large organizations codified into procedures. It captures how discrimination can be built into the standard operating ways an institution functions, not just from one person’s bias in a small circle.

Why the other ideas aren’t the fit: personal bias in a close circle refers to interpersonal discrimination, not the systemic, rules-based patterns seen across a whole organization. Economic inequality due to market forces points to broader economic structure rather than discrimination embedded in institutional rules. Laws that protect equal rights are designed to prevent discrimination, not to describe it.